How to Feed

Nutrition is Not Just About Food

Proper nutrition for dogs involves not only the type of food they consume, but also the method and frequency of delivery. The manner in which a dog is fed can have an impact on their digestion, overall health, wellbeing and behavior. This chapter will delve into the feeding behavior of dogs, its implications for feeding practices, and common food-related behaviors exhibited by dogs.

Feeding Behaviour of the Domestic Dog

The domestic dog has evolved to have a gorge feeding behavior, which involves consuming large amounts of food quickly. This behavior is similar to that of many wild canid species that scavenge, hunt, and eat opportunistically, often in the company of other individuals. It is worth noting that our dogs have the capacity to meet their daily calorie requirements in a single meal, which is typically followed by a period of rest to support prolonged digestion. The question then arises as to how we should go about feeding our dogs. Is it advisable to follow the feeding practices of wild canids?

Chewing is a natural behaviour for dogs, but care must be taken to ensure chew items are safe and suitable, such as this coffee wood chew.

Social Facilitation and Transmission of Feeding Behaviour in Dogs

The evolution of dogs from species with cooperative hunting strategies provides insight into the rapid ingestion of food often observed in dogs. Many caregivers report their dogs "inhaling" their food, with mealtimes lasting only a few minutes or seconds. This behavior likely stems from competition for key resources, including food. Additionally, social facilitation of eating is common in domestic dogs, with the presence of other dogs increasing the speed and amount of food consumed. Resource-guarding of food may also occur in some cases.

Food preference in dogs also has a social aspect. While research has suggested social transmission of food preference through odor detection, this has not been fully replicated. However, there is evidence that dogs can learn through visual and behavioral cues. For example, "fussy" eaters may be encouraged to eat when in the presence of food-motivated dogs. Further research may expand our understanding of how social interactions with both dogs and humans influence food preferences.

Experience and Feeding Behaviour

An often overlooked aspect of feeding behavior is the impact of experience and familiarity with food during growth and development, as well as adulthood. This phenomenon has been observed in numerous species and can significantly influence later feeding and diet choices. When puppies have a limited and restricted diet, they may become hesitant to try new flavors or foods, which is known as neophobia. This behavior is characterized by an avoidance of new or novel experiences, including food flavors and ingredients. Conversely, puppies and adult dogs fed a varied diet are often neophilic and enjoy consuming a range of flavors and ingredients, sometimes actively seeking out new and novel dietary experiences. Puppies also spend a significant amount of time exploring their world through touch and taste, which is why they may eat or chew on items that are not intended for consumption. It is important to limit potential access to toxic or otherwise dangerous items during this stage, such as many garden plants and bulbs that can be toxic.

Weaning is a time when puppies start to experience solid food and can help develop their future feeding behaviours.

It is not unusual for puppies to explore the world via their mouths, although care should be taken to ensure that inappropriate items are not ingested.

Palatability

Several factors can impact the intensity of neophobic or neophilic feeding behaviors in dogs, including the acceptability, palatability, novelty, and hunger level of the food. When dietary changes are necessary, it is advisable to gradually introduce new foods or ingredients over a period of one to two weeks. It is recommended to start with a small amount of the new material and gradually increase it to allow for behavioral feeding adaptation and adjustment of the digestive system and microbiome. This approach can help promote the health and well-being of our dogs while minimizing potential digestive upset.

The term palatability can be challenging to apply to animal nutrition, as it is a human perspective that focuses on the taste and enjoyment of food. It is difficult to assess this aspect in animals, and we can only speculate about what our dogs experience when they eat.

Although we possess knowledge of the taste receptors and chemical detection abilities of dogs, we cannot accurately determine their perception of taste or their preferences. The definition of palatability as "tastiness" overlooks the possibility of future acceptance of a food or flavor, as well as potential digestive responses that may limit future acceptance. This has been observed in animals where a previously enjoyed food becomes associated with negative events, resulting in a conditioned response that causes avoidance of certain foods or flavors. Similarly, individuals may experience this after bouts of food poisoning or illness. In the realm of dog food, palatability refers to the level of acceptability and eagerness of animals to consume a particular food or flavor, without considering any longer-term conditioned behavioral responses. It is worth noting that many dogs will consume items that have previously made them ill.

The acceptability and consumption of a dog's food can be influenced by its palatability. Dogs tend to prefer and consume more highly palatable foods over those that are less palatable. It is important to be aware of the impact that food or individual ingredients' palatability can have on a dog's food intake. In situations where a dog's food intake may be reduced, such as during illness, recovery, old age, weight-management diets, or high-performance output, it is recommended to offer highly palatable foods that contain ingredients that increase palatability, such as animal-derived protein and high fat levels. The texture, aroma, and chemical compounds that develop during food storage and deterioration also play a role in food palatability. If a dog suddenly refuses a food that it previously accepted, it is essential to investigate the dog's health and consider the potential for spoilage and the production of unpalatable compounds within the food. Simple methods such as soaking food, adding warm water, or serving food warmed can help increase the palatability and acceptability of food for some dogs.

The Daily Feeding Behaviour of the Dog

All animals are subject to the natural light-dark cycle due to the rotation of the earth, which generates circadian rhythms that regulate various aspects of their biology, such as sleeping and waking periods, as well as eating. Domestic dogs, for instance, have irregular sleep-wake cycles and tend to rest for a significant portion of the day, sometimes up to twenty hours. While dogs are less influenced by circadian rhythms and light-dark cycles than cats, they are highly adaptable to human routines and lifestyles.

The Feeding Behaviour of Wild Canids

Wild canids exhibit a range of feeding behaviors, indicating a preference for a mixed diet of plant and animal material. However, wild canids and free-living or feral dogs face limitations in their dietary choices due to seasonal or geographic constraints. Therefore, the ability to subsist on a variety of foods is advantageous. Hunting and scavenging require significant amounts of energy and failed attempts can be costly, resulting in a net loss of energy. This is a crucial consideration in the diet composition of wild canids. Additionally, wild canids often eat infrequently, relying on food availability rather than regular mealtimes.

What Does Wild Canid Behaviour Mean for Feeding the Domestic Dog?

Compared to their wild counterparts, domestic dogs tend to have a more consistent diet in terms of ingredients and portion sizes. This is because their owners are responsible for providing them with food and determining when and how much they eat. As a result, we tend to view their feeding behavior from a domesticated perspective, with regular mealtimes that fit within human schedules and food served in a bowl. While scavenging is still a common behavior for many dogs, hunting opportunities are limited due to selective breeding, training, and dietary provision that has reduced their biological urge to consume prey. However, some ancestral feeding behaviors may still be exhibited by our dogs, which may not always align with human sensibilities.

Coprophagy (or the Eating of Faeces)

Canine coprophagy is a common behavior in which dogs consume fecal matter, often causing concern and disgust among their owners. This behavior can involve the ingestion of their own feces, those of other dogs, and even the fecal matter of other animals, whether herbivores or carnivores. Some dogs may have a preference for certain types of feces, such as those of cats, which they can locate with remarkable accuracy, albeit in a repulsive manner.

Many parasites are transmitted in the faecal matter of dogs and other animals. Measures to control internal parasites may be needed and minimizing consumption of faecal matter is important.

The consumption of faeces by dogs is a behavior that is considered unpleasant from a human perspective and is associated with health risks for both humans and canines. The faecal-oral route is a common mode of transmission for various diseases and parasites. However, it is important to note that coprophagy is a natural behavior for dogs and may have had evolutionary advantages. It is worth noting that dogs that engage in this behavior do not necessarily have any specific veterinary, nutritional, or behavioral issues, and there is no clear link to sex, breed, or other characteristics. Studies indicate that dogs are more likely to consume fresh feces, which suggests that removing fecal matter may help reduce the transmission of parasites. Additionally, bitches routinely consume their puppies' waste to keep their living area clean, and this behavior can persist into adulthood for some dogs.

How Can I Stop My Dog Eating Poop?

When considering coprophagy as a concern, it is important to note that strategies involving dietary changes or the addition of supplements have proven to be largely ineffective. Studies examining canine coprophagy have revealed few consistent factors that make the behavior more or less likely. However, it has been observed that dogs may learn the behavior from observing other dogs or as a result of living in poorly managed environments. Additionally, dogs that have been punished for defecating in the house may consume feces as a means of avoiding future punishment. To manage coprophagy, preventing access to fecal matter is the most reliable approach. Other strategies may not consistently result in behavioral change. It is important to note that coprophagy is a natural behavior and does not necessarily indicate ill-health or other problems.

Eating Grass and Other Plants

It is common for domestic dogs to exhibit a natural behavior of eating grass and other plants. While it is important to be aware of potentially toxic plants, research has shown that there is no definite link to diet, breed, sex, or spay/neuter status of dogs. It is worth noting that dogs are able to detect sweet tastes, and young grass and other plants may be rich in sweet carbohydrates, therefore, there may be a simple taste preference for sweet plant material. Additionally, dogs often eat sweet fruit and vegetables, a behavior also seen in wild canids. It is possible that self-selecting some plant material for consumption may have health benefits for dogs, as many animals are known to self-medicate and select certain plants for consumption. It is also possible that dogs may eat grass when they need to be sick, and vomiting is common after the ingestion of substantial amounts of indigestible plant material. However, vomiting after eating grass is not consistently seen, and in most cases, eating plants is part of their natural feeding behavior and is not necessarily associated with digestive, nutritional or other health problems.

Dogs often eat grass and young, fresh plant material through choice. Eating grass is not always a sign of digestive discomfort, nutritional inadequacy or ill-health. Dogs have the ability to detect sweet tastes and young plants are often rich in sweet-tasting compounds that dogs will seek for.

How Many Meals Should My Dog Have Each Day?

Determining the appropriate number of meals for a dog requires consideration of various factors related to the dog and caregiver. While some dogs thrive on one meal per day, most dogs are typically fed twice daily to align with human eating patterns and convenience. There is some flexibility in a dog's feeding schedule, as individual preferences may vary in terms of meal size, frequency, and timing. For instance, toy breeds and dogs on weight-management programs may benefit from multiple small meals throughout the day, which allows for targeted food supply in relation to exercise or performance output. Additionally, for dogs with high energy demands, multiple smaller meals may be more effective in delivering necessary nutrients compared to a single large meal. However, it is important to recognize that a dog's digestive capacity may limit intake, digestion, and absorption, particularly in pregnant bitches or dogs predisposed to gastric dilation, gastric torsion, or bloat. While feeding once a day has been suggested to promote health and longevity, each situation should be evaluated on an individual basis.

When Should I Feed My Dog?

In order to ensure optimal digestive health for dogs, it is recommended to establish regular feeding times that coincide with the caregiver's schedule. This approach can be especially beneficial for dogs with sensitive digestive systems or those who experience digestive upset when anticipating meal times. Feeding small, frequent meals can help manage these symptoms. Additionally, some dogs may experience behavioral anxiety around mealtimes, and it is important to take this into consideration when establishing a feeding schedule.

When planning meals, it is important to consider the timing of exercise and activity. Allowing at least an hour between feeding and activity can help prevent digestive upset and promote better digestion. Furthermore, it is advisable to feed larger meals before periods of rest to support optimal digestion. For active dogs, dividing their daily intake into three meals, with the largest meal before their night rest period, can improve performance and minimize digestive issues during exercise.

Interestingly, research suggests that the timing of feeding can have an impact on a dog's cognitive abilities. Specifically, dogs who were fed thirty minutes before a search task performed better than those who were fed ninety minutes prior. This highlights the importance of tailoring feeding schedules to the individual dog and their specific needs.

Should I ‘Fast’ My Dog?

In the past, it was a common practice to fast dogs for a day each week, based on their wild canid diets and the gorge-fast cycle of feeding. While some caregivers still follow this approach, it is important to consider individual circumstances before incorporating it into a dog's routine. Fasting and calorie restriction have been shown to promote longevity and reduce the incidence of certain health problems in many species, including dogs. However, it may not be suitable for working, highly active, pregnant, or lactating dogs, as it could limit their performance and affect their wellbeing. Additionally, withholding food may cause frustration and anxiety for some dogs and could be dangerous for those with health conditions. The 'five domains' model of animal welfare emphasizes the importance of freedom from hunger and thirst, and it is our legal responsibility to ensure that animals in our care have access to fresh water and a diet that supports their health. If fasting is implemented, it must be done with careful consideration and management.

Should I Make Food Freely Available for My Dog?

Dogs may be fed free-choice or ad libitum, which means they have unrestricted access to food without set mealtimes. This feeding method is commonly used for puppies after weaning to encourage independent feeding behavior and adequate nutrition for growth and development. However, for adult dogs, it may require further consideration. While some dogs are able to regulate their food intake and bodyweight effectively with free access to food, it can be a potentially dangerous, expensive, and inappropriate choice for others. Certain types of food, such as raw, fresh, moist, or cooked foods, may be at risk of contamination and bacterial growth if left exposed to ambient temperatures and environmental conditions for extended periods. Additionally, ad libitum feeding can pose challenges for dogs requiring weight management and calorie restriction to support weight loss or maintain a healthy, lean body condition after weight loss. Controlled, managed meals offer a more controlled intake of nutrients while allowing dogs to express natural feeding behavior and feel satiated. Prolonged feelings of hunger or frustration around food can lead to unwanted behavioral and metabolic problems, making ad libitum feeding a careful consideration for select dogs.

What About ‘Foodie’ Dogs?

Many dogs have a strong inclination towards food, making it difficult for them to regulate their intake. For instance, breeds such as the Labrador retriever are known for their food-oriented behavior. Interestingly, a loss-of-function mutation in the POMC gene, which encodes a protein involved in appetite regulation, has been identified in Labradors and flat coat retrievers. Dogs with this mutation tend to be more trainable, but also more prone to overeating. Furthermore, dogs with free access to food may exhibit gorge-feeding behavior, which can lead to serious health issues. If your dog consumes an excessive amount of food, particularly dry food, it is important to consult your veterinarian for advice. Preventing access to food is a crucial management strategy for dogs that are prone to overindulging. Using sealed containers and bins to store dog food can help maintain hygiene and prevent inappropriate access.

What About Food Hoarding?

Dogs may exhibit hoarding behavior from time to time, where they hide or relocate food resources for later consumption. This behavior is often observed in domestic dogs with bones or other items that are not consumed in a single meal. It can also be associated with intermittent, meal-based feeding patterns and situations where excess food is provided. Smaller dogs, which are typically less food-focused and more likely to eat only to satiety, are more prone to this behavior.

‘Fussy’ Dogs

Many pet caregivers report having dogs that are selective eaters, often refusing to eat anything at all. These dogs may exhibit behaviors that encourage their caregivers to add extra treats or provide more appealing options. Selective eaters are often found in single-dog households and may not feel social pressure to eat. These dogs may also train their caregivers to respond to their behaviors by offering different types of food. While it is important to provide palatable food, many selective eaters are able to eat normally in the presence of other animals. The presence of potential competition and social facilitation can be important factors in managing feeding behavior. It is crucial to determine if selective eating is due to behavior, individual preference, or a health condition.

How Should I Feed My Dog?

Traditionally, dogs are commonly fed from bowls as they provide an efficient means of delivering food. However, if you opt for a raw or carcass-based diet, your dog may be offered the animal part and allowed to settle wherever they prefer, consuming their meal at their own pace without the use of bowls. Some caregivers choose to offer their dogs meals that are divided into individual ingredients on a tray, allowing their furry friend to self-select items and consume them in their preferred order. Ultimately, the method in which you deliver food to your dog is dependent on your personal preferences and your dog's needs. It is essential to ensure that your dog can consume their meal safely and without fear of their food being taken by another dog. Fortunately, there are various ways to feed your dog, and you can choose the best option for you and your furry companion.

Dog Bowls

When selecting a bowl for your dog's food or water, it is important to choose one that is appropriately sized for their muzzle. Materials such as plastic, metal, and ceramic are all viable options, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Ceramic bowls are aesthetically pleasing but may break or chip easily. They are also heavy, which can be beneficial for larger dogs as it reduces the likelihood of the bowl moving around during mealtime. Plastic bowls are affordable and easy to replace, but they can become scratched and harbor bacteria. Additionally, some caregivers are concerned about potential chemical exposure from plastic bowls that could affect their dog's hormones. Metal bowls are sturdy and easy to sanitize with boiling water, making them a great choice for households with multiple dogs or where infection is a concern. However, they can be noisy if your dog has a habit of moving their bowl while eating.

Metal bowls are easily cleaned and robust.

Specialised Dog Bowls

Slow-feeding bowls are designed with inserts that can help regulate the eating habits of dogs that tend to gulp or gorge their food, or for those that require a longer mealtime due to weight-management. Raised bowls are also a viable option, particularly for larger, deep-chested breeds. While there is inconclusive evidence to support their effectiveness in preventing bloat, some dogs, particularly those with mobility issues, may benefit from using raised bowls. Overall, it is important to consider the specific needs of your dog when selecting feeding equipment.

Alternative Food Delivery Methods

There are various alternatives to feeding dogs through traditional bowls. One such method is scatter-feeding, which can promote activity during mealtimes and encourage sniffing behavior. This approach is best suited for dry food and a clean surface, such as a patio, indoor floor, or lawn. By scattering food widely, dogs can forage for their meals, which many find relaxing and enjoyable. Additionally, using a portion of your dog's daily food allowance as training rewards can be effective and can serve as a form of trickle-feeding. Food-activity toys, chews, and treats can also be useful for extending mealtimes, increasing activity, and providing behavioral enrichment. There are numerous options available on the market, including toys that can be filled or smeared with food and used throughout the day. Frozen food-activity toys can also be given to dogs on hot days to prolong eating time. It is important to choose chews that are not excessively hard to avoid dental damage, especially if your dog is a frequent chewer. Edible chews should be factored into your dog's daily food intake, taking into account their calorie content and potential impact on their weight.

A number of alternative ways to deliver food to our dogs are available, including many different food-activity toys.

Chews are useful to provide environmental enrichment but should be included in your dog’s daily food intake as they often supply additional calories.

Summary

• How and when you feed your dog is as important as what you feed your dog.
• Palatability and acceptability of food are important to support food intake, especially for dogs that might be fussy or otherwise reluctant to eat because of inexperience or novelty.
• The dog evolved as a scavenger and gorge-feeder – dogs will still occasionally demonstrate these ‘ancestral’ behaviours, e.g. coprophagy.
• Individual dogs and their situations will determine if a single meal per day or more are needed – one size does not fit all.
• There are a variety of ways in which food can be presented to dogs, from bowls to food-activity toys.