Feeding for Life Stage

Dogs undergo a variety of changes throughout their lifespan, from puppyhood to senior status, and it is vital to tailor their nutrition and feeding habits accordingly to support their overall health. Age and life stage, as well as breed, size, and activity level, all play a role in determining a dog's nutritional requirements. Many commercial diets offer specific ranges formulated for various life stages, including puppy, junior, adult, and senior, which some may view as a marketing tactic. However, scientific research has increasingly shown that feeding for specific life stages is crucial, regardless of the chosen diet. It is important to understand the key nutritional needs of dogs from before birth to their senior years, and this knowledge will be practically applied.

Nutrition for Reproduction

The nutrition of dogs plays a crucial role in their overall health, starting from their prenatal stage. The diet of breeding dogs and bitches should be thoughtfully planned, taking into account the quality and quantity of nutrients provided. It is imperative to ensure that the potential mating partners are suitable matches not only in terms of their general health, but also their genetic and breed/type compatibility.

Nutrition Before Breeding

Maintaining good overall health and a fit, lean body condition is crucial for animals intended for breeding. A fundamental principle to follow is 'fit not fat' for any breeding dog. Obesity in dogs can lead to significant reproductive problems such as difficulty mating, reduced litter size, and potentially, dystocia during birth. Furthermore, obesity can have long-term health effects on offspring, as studies across various species indicate that the offspring of overweight parents may experience long-term impacts on gene expression and overall wellbeing. However, it is equally important to ensure that animals are not underweight since underweight bitches may experience delayed reproductive cycles or have difficulties conceiving, carrying a litter to full-term, or whelping.

Another area of growing interest is the impact of environmental chemicals on fertility across different species. Studies on both canines and humans have shown that a range of chemicals and toxins present in the environment (and thus, in food) can negatively affect reproduction and development. Since dogs often share the same environment and dietary components as humans, their health and reproduction serve as a critical indicator of what might be problematic for us as well.

Breeding dogs should be ‘fit not fat’ and have a good lean, body condition.

Numerous chemicals have been identified as having detrimental effects on reproductive health and development. These chemicals can be found in food ingredients naturally, as contaminants, or as a result of processing, storage, or packaging. They can also be present in the wider environment, including water. Many of these chemicals are known to be endocrine disruptors, which means they affect the normal functioning of the body's hormonal system. While these environmental chemicals induce adverse effects on sperm health, they are typically found at higher levels in the dog ovary than in the testes. The decline in the quality of human sperm and dogs' declining sperm quality suggest a common mechanism is at play.

Moreover, early development, both prenatal and postnatal, is sensitive to exposure to chemicals that may disrupt normal processes. Exposure to certain environmental chemicals can affect the number of male and female offspring produced, with a skew towards female offspring. Therefore, it is important to be aware of the diet and the wider environment for reproducing animals. A simple measure is to minimize the use of plastics for bowls and instead use stainless steel or other inert materials. It is crucial to take care when using any medications, particularly in pregnant bitches, and seek veterinary advice if unsure. It is also sensible to limit exposure to other potentially toxic or damaging chemicals, such as weedkillers or cleaning agents. This can reduce exposure to at least some potentially problematic chemicals.

Nutrition of Stud Dogs

During breeding, it is essential to pay attention to both the health and nutrition of the stud dog, as well as the female. A stud dog's fitness and ability to mate are crucial, particularly if he is in high demand. Providing an adequate supply of energy, protein, and essential micronutrients, like zinc, is crucial to support sperm health, viability, and motility. A well-fed, active, and lean stud dog that follows a nutritionally balanced diet should not require any specific dietary adjustments. However, it is crucial to be aware of the quality of the diet, as harmful environmental chemicals can have long-term effects. Additionally, ensuring that the diet provides all necessary nutrients in the correct amounts and forms is important.

What About Nutrition of the Brood Bitch?

Prior to breeding, it is recommended that a female dog be in optimal physical condition, with a healthy and lean body. This is crucial for supporting her fertility, conception, and ability to carry a pregnancy to term. As whelping and lactation are energetically taxing for the bitch, it is important to ensure that she is on a well-balanced and nutritious diet prior to breeding, as this will help her to successfully raise a healthy litter.

Nutrition Before Breeding

Prior to breeding, it is recommended to ensure that the female dog is consuming a diet that satisfies her activity requirements and is nutritionally complete. The process of reproduction can be physically demanding and may exhaust the body's reserves of certain nutrients. Preemptively providing these nutrients before and after breeding can aid in the rapid recovery of the female dog after giving birth. Folic acid is a crucial component for the proper development of embryos. Additionally, minerals such as zinc, copper, and manganese are necessary to support litter size and development. The provision of omega-3 fatty acids, specifically DHA and EPA, is also essential in supporting fertility, as well as the normal eye and brain development of puppies. Adequately formulated diets will supply these nutrients in appropriate quantities and forms.

Nutrition After Mating

During the initial five weeks of a typical canine pregnancy, there is no need for any specific changes to the bitch's diet or an increase in the amount fed. Although the developing foetuses are sensitive, especially during the first two weeks, and care should be taken to minimize exposure to anything that could impact normal development. Between weeks three to five after mating, many bitches may experience a loss of appetite, vomiting, or digestive upset. While this is usually limited and transient, it is recommended to seek veterinary advice if it is prolonged or concerning. During the last four weeks of gestation, the developing puppies place significant demands on their dam. Therefore, it is essential to increase nutrition both in amount and nutrient supply. However, careful monitoring of the bitch and estimation of litter size is necessary to ensure that she does not gain body weight from overfeeding instead of growing puppies.

A heavily pregnant bitch resting in her whelping box, ready for the arrival of puppies.

Typically, female dogs are transitioned onto a specialized diet formulated to support performance or puppy growth and development. These diets are higher in energy, protein, and fat than standard maintenance diets and often provide elevated or managed levels of other key nutrients. It is recommended that the female dog's daily intake be 50% greater than her maintenance intake, and regular bodyweight monitoring is useful. Ideally, her bodyweight should increase by 15-20% by the time of birth, depending on the size of the litter carried.

As pregnancy progresses, the developing puppies can start to impinge on the female dog's digestive capacity, necessitating more frequent, smaller meals. Immediately before giving birth, many female dogs will stop eating, which can be a sign of impending labor or early labor.

Nutrition and Feeding During and Immediately After Birth

When a litter of puppies is delivered quickly and consistently, the mother dog may not have the time or inclination to eat. If labor is prolonged or a caesarean section is performed, small meals can be offered regularly, but it is not uncommon for the mother to refuse them. After giving birth, it is recommended to offer palatable and easily digestible food. If using dry food, soaking it in warm water can increase its palatability and provide additional fluid intake. Fresh, clean drinking water should always be available. It is wise to have alternative foods on hand to entice mothers who may have lost their appetite.

During the birthing process, it is typical for mothers to consume the placenta and other membranes expelled with the puppies. While this is entirely normal, it can cause short-lived digestive upset and diarrhea. Providing food and water in the whelping area is essential in the first few days after giving birth, as many mothers do not like leaving their puppies to eat, drink, or relieve themselves.

Nutrition Post-Whelping and During Lactation

It is recommended that food be readily available for the nursing mother to feed as needed, particularly during the first two to three weeks after giving birth and up to week five while nursing puppies. It is common for the mother to clean her puppies and consume their waste, which can cause digestive upset, especially as the puppies transition to solid food. However, after this point, the mother is typically less inclined to clean her offspring. Adequate energy and water intake are crucial to support lactation demands, which peak around three to four weeks post-whelping. A diet providing at least 4,000kcal/kg is ideal to meet these nutritional demands, which can typically be found in performance- or puppy-formulated diets. In the event that puppies require additional nutritional support, such as with very large litters, commercial puppy milk can be purchased and fed through bottle-feeding. While home-prepared alternatives are possible, they may not provide sufficient energy and key nutrients unless carefully formulated.

Occasionally puppies need additional nutritional help or hand-rearing.

Nutrition for Weaning

From approximately three weeks of age, puppies begin to develop their mobility, as well as their sight and hearing. In some cases, a female dog may allow her puppies to sample her food if it is accessible to them. It is not uncommon for a mother dog to consume food and then regurgitate it for her puppies to eat, as this is a natural and normal process that has evolved over time. This behavior can be stimulated by the puppies licking at their mother's mouth. As the puppies continue to mature and approach the weaning stage, gradually reducing the amount of food provided to the mother and transitioning her back to her regular diet can help to reduce her milk production. This process can also help to transition the puppies to their new diet. In most cases, the mother dog will gradually decrease the frequency with which she makes herself available for nursing. These steps can help to ensure that the weaning process is as stress-free and relaxed as possible for all involved.

Weaning can be a messy process but is an important developmental stage for all puppies.

Do Brood Bitches Need Supplements?

It is important to exercise caution when supplementing the nutrition of pregnant dogs, particularly during the early stages of pregnancy. Overfeeding certain nutrients can have adverse effects on the development of the puppies. Vitamin A, for instance, can seriously affect the normal eye development of puppies if provided in excess during pregnancy. Therefore, supplements like cod liver oil should only be used under the guidance of a professional and with due care. It is crucial to provide minerals such as calcium and phosphorus in the right quantities for the well-being of both the bitch and her offspring. If the diet is nutritionally balanced or customized, there should be no need for specific supplementation.

Puppy Nutrition – Up to Eight Weeks Old

In the first 24 hours after whelping, it is imperative that puppies nurse and receive colostrum from their dam. Colostrum, the first milk produced, provides essential substances that promote immunity and support immune system development. The protective substances in colostrum can only be absorbed by the puppy's digestive system for about 24-48 hours after whelping, after which normal digestive processes commence and these substances would be destroyed. Puppies should be monitored and weighed daily during the first two weeks of life to ensure they are growing well.

Following the initial colostrum-rich milk, the composition of milk changes, and puppies will consume this exclusively for the first three to four weeks. After this period, they will begin to explore solid foods, and the weaning process can commence. Puppies can start by tasting their dam's food, which can be made easier by soaking a small amount of the chosen food in warm water to create a paste or mash. It is important to avoid using cows' milk to soak puppy food as the lactose content can cause digestive upset. Raw or home-prepared food can also be offered as minced, finely ground, or pureed meals. However, it is essential to note that puppy weaning can be a messy job, and puppies often end up covered in as much food as they consume.

As puppies reach eight weeks of age, the amount of food offered daily is gradually increased. By this time, most puppies are fully weaned onto solid food and rarely nurse, although some dams may continue feeding for longer. It is vital to support a managed and high-welfare weaning process, as this is behaviorally and nutritionally important for both the dam and the puppies. Additionally, exposing puppies to a variety of different foods and flavors during their early development can promote the development of a healthy and robust digestive microbiome, as well as reducing the likelihood of fussy or neophobic feeding in later life. Finally, it is crucial to ensure that puppies have been exposed to several types of food to facilitate an easy transition to their new homes and potentially new diets.

Puppies should be weighed regularly to ensure they are gaining weight consistently.

Puppyhood and Growth

At the age of eight weeks, puppies are typically ready to leave their littermates and dam. This transition to a new home, and potentially a new diet, should be approached with caution. It is recommended that any dietary changes be made gradually, as leaving their litter can be a stressful time for young puppies. Additionally, exposure to new environments, dogs, people, and other challenges, such as vaccinations, can further contribute to their stress levels. While digestive upset is common during this time, it should be self-limiting. However, puppies are also prone to infections and accidental ingestion of harmful substances while exploring, making care and awareness of their surroundings crucial.

Nutrition of the Growing Puppy

As puppies grow, it is important to provide them with a sufficient supply of energy in the form of calories, quality, and digestible protein to support the growth of tissues and organs, as well as other nutrients to support growth and development. Young puppies, up to approximately six months old, should be fed three to four meals per day. As they age, the number of meals can gradually be decreased until the desired number of adult meals is reached, while ensuring that the puppy is developing appropriately and maintaining a healthy body weight and condition.

A typical puppy diet is higher in fat and protein than an adult maintenance diet. Growth is rapid during the first six months of puppyhood, and this is when nutrition is critical to supply the energy and building blocks for growth. Small and medium breeds and types will often reach an adult body weight between six and twelve months of age, so will often benefit from a growth-supporting diet until this point, after which they can transition to a suitable adult diet. Large and giant breeds will often continue maturing until about two years of age and typically need their slower physical growth supported through more managed nutrition before moving to an adult diet.

Supporting growth is important, but it is crucial to ensure that young dogs do not carry excess body weight. This is especially important for larger breeds and types, where a moderate level of energy supply will support steady growth rates. As puppies reach physical maturity, their dietary energy requirement decreases. During periods of rapid, early growth, at least twice the number of kilocalories need to be supplied as for adult maintenance. This requirement decreases as the puppy reaches maturity and adulthood. It is important to recognize this point and to modify the diet and amount fed accordingly. This ensures that growing dogs are kept in a fit, lean condition, rather than encouraging the development of "puppy fat." Growth should be gradual, and nutrition should not be used to try and accelerate growth and development. Indeed, rapid growth can predispose the animal to skeletal problems. Fat deposition as a puppy may increase the likelihood of adult obesity.

Diets formulated for puppy and junior growth will have managed levels of calcium and phosphorus to support steady skeletal growth and development. This is especially important for large breeds. Young dogs also have limited ability to excrete mineral excess, meaning many adult diets are unsuitable.

When Should I Move My Puppy On to an Adult Diet?

The determination of when a dog can be considered an adult varies depending on their breed, type, and size. Typically, small and medium breeds reach physical maturity sooner than their larger counterparts. An adult dog is characterized by the cessation of physical growth in both size and shape. It is worth noting that a dog's musculature will continue to develop during early adulthood, with exercise and activity playing a crucial role in this process.

Young dogs need nutrition to support growth and activity before being transitioned to an adult diet.

For small and medium-sized dogs, the transition from a growth and development diet to an adult one typically begins at around eight months of age. These dogs typically reach their full height and maturity by one year of age. However, large and giant breeds have a much slower maturation process and may not reach physical maturity until nearly two years of age. Therefore, it is crucial to provide them with early nutrition that supports slow and steady growth. Large and giant-breed puppies can greatly benefit from specialized nutrition during their first two years of life, which carefully manages nutrient levels compared to standard puppy or junior diets, before transitioning to an adult diet.

The Adult Dog

Mature canines have attained physical maturity and no longer require nutritional support for growth and development. Nevertheless, their diet must sustain their activity level and provide the necessary nutrients for repair, regeneration, and overall health maintenance. In general, adult domesticated dogs lead a sedentary lifestyle, and their diet should supply energy to support their maintenance activity levels. As long as their living conditions, exercise routine, and health remain stable, most pet dogs thrive on a standard adult dog diet, regardless of their caregiver's preference.

Does Spay and Neuter Have an Effect on My Adult Dog’s Diet?

Spaying and neutering are effective methods to control unwanted reproductive behaviors and prevent the birth of puppies. Spaying involves the surgical removal of a female dog's ovaries and/or uterus to prevent pregnancy, while neutering involves the surgical removal of a male dog's testicles, although vasectomies are sometimes performed. Hormonal implants are also becoming increasingly popular as an alternative method of reproductive control.

It is worth noting that many spayed and neutered dogs may experience physical changes, including coat changes. However, it is important to recognize that spay/neuter surgery also reduces the dog's energy requirements. As a result, spayed/neutered dogs may require up to 25% fewer kilocalories per day. Failure to adjust the dog's diet accordingly may lead to weight gain. To prevent this, it is recommended to decrease the dog's calorie intake by 10% after spay/neuter and to monitor their body weight and condition closely. Adjustments to the amount fed can then be made to maintain a healthy body condition, which is a much safer approach than waiting for weight gain to occur and attempting to correct it later.

What About Dogs that Need Help with Weight Management?

As dogs mature into adulthood, they tend to exhibit decreased levels of excitement and activity compared to their puppyhood. As a result, they may expend less energy during exercise, which, when combined with other factors such as breed predisposition and spay/neuter, can contribute to weight gain. Given the association between overweight/obesity and numerous health issues and reduced lifespan, it is crucial to manage your dog's weight. Effective weight management practices include regular weighing and body condition scoring, ideally on a weekly basis, which allows for prompt detection of even minor changes and necessary dietary modifications. Additionally, adjusting their exercise routine to increase energy expenditure and altering their feeding habits (what, how, and when they eat) to reduce calorie intake can be helpful. It is essential to note that weight management is a lifelong process for your dog.

The Older Dog

Determining when a dog is considered a senior is dependent on the individual dog. Traditionally, it was recommended to switch to a senior diet once the dog reached seven years old. However, many dogs are still thriving at this age and can continue on a standard adult diet. It is not necessary to switch to a specific senior diet solely based on age. If your dog appears healthy, remains active, and has no underlying health conditions, a diet formulated for adult maintenance or activity (if your dog is highly active) should suffice. Only make the decision to change your older dog's diet if there are changes in their health, bodyweight, or body condition score.

What Diet Changes Might an Older Dog Need?

Diets formulated for older dogs require certain adjustments to suit their reduced energy needs and weight gain tendencies. Typically, these diets contain fewer calories, fat, and protein than standard adult diets. Aging dogs are more prone to developing health conditions such as osteoarthritis, which can cause reduced activity and increased bodyweight. This leads to a vicious cycle, where the dog becomes less active due to osteoarthritis, gains weight, exacerbating discomfort from their joints, and making them even less likely to be active. To ensure your older dog maintains a healthy bodyweight and receives adequate care, it is crucial to seek advice from a veterinarian if you notice signs of slowing down, stiffness, discomfort, or pain. While nutrition, such as omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, can aid some conditions, veterinary support may also be necessary. Additionally, some older dogs may have dental issues and require dietary changes, such as offering wet or soaked food.

Some senior dogs remain very active and need very few nutritional changes. Molly still runs with her person several kilometres each week aged eleven.

Does My Older Dog Need Food with Reduced Protein Levels?

In the past, it was believed that high-protein diets could lead to kidney disease in dogs, resulting in many older dog diets having lower levels of protein. However, current research has shown that high-protein diets are not a cause of kidney disease and, in fact, older dogs may require higher levels of quality, digestible protein compared to adult dogs at maintenance. This is due to the additional demands on their body as a result of the ageing process, which can lead to a decrease in their ability to effectively digest, absorb, and use dietary protein. In some cases, health changes may increase the turnover of protein in the body, necessitating an enhanced dietary supply. While older dogs' energy requirements typically decrease, reducing dietary fat levels can be beneficial. Additionally, older dogs may experience sarcopenia, a loss of lean muscle mass, which can be accelerated by diets low in digestible protein and lead to other health and wellbeing issues. Therefore, older dogs often benefit from diets with elevated levels of quality, digestible protein, compared to maintenance adult diets or traditional 'senior diets,' with at least 25 percent of their energy intake coming from protein.

Should I Give My Older Dog Supplements to Support Joint and/or Cognitive Health?

The supplement market offers a wide range of ingredients that claim to support various health conditions, including joint, movement, and cognitive health. Among these, joint-support supplements are particularly popular, but despite the extensive use of these products and the diverse range of ingredients they contain, evidence regarding their efficacy remains inconclusive. While there are many anecdotal reports of their value, it is unclear which ingredients are truly effective, what inclusion levels are optimal, and how best to administer them. In contrast, there is robust evidence supporting the use of marine-derived omega-3 fatty acids to support overall wellbeing and target specific aspects of joint and cognitive health in dogs.

If you are considering a supplement for your dog, it is important to first assess your goals and then carefully review the supplement's formulation and potential benefits. It can be helpful to keep a record of your dog's condition and health when starting a new supplement or making any dietary changes, to monitor for any positive or negative effects. If you do not observe any discernible benefits, do not hesitate to discontinue use of the supplement.

Summary

• Our dogs experience different life stages that can benefit from tailored nutrition.
• Nutrition for reproduction includes ensuring stud dogs and brood bitches are in good physical condition and have an appropriate supply of nutrients to support the demands of reproduction – this is especially important for bitches during pregnancy, whelping and lactation.
• Growing puppies and young dogs benefit from diets with increased energy levels, good-quality, digestible protein and other key nutrients, such as calcium and phosphorous, at appropriate levels.
• Adult dogs typically need a diet to support maintenance energy requirements but lifestyle factors, including spay/neuter status and bodyweight, will impact on their required nutrient provision.
• Older dogs typically need energy-reduced diets but will often benefit from maintained or enhanced levels of quality, digestible dietary protein, and provision of omega-3 supplementation.