Feeding for Activity and Performance

The Canine Athlete

Dogs are involved in a diverse range of work, sports, and activities, each requiring specific adaptations to support their athletic abilities. Their impressive physical, physiological, and metabolic adaptations allow them to excel in their respective fields. For instance, dogs have a contractile spleen that enables them to move large volumes of red blood cells before and during exercise, improving their oxygen-carrying capacity and aiding in the removal of waste materials.

Selective breeding has resulted in breeds of dogs with specific adaptations to suit particular types of exercise and activity. To train and condition the canine athlete, it is crucial to expose them to exercise of a specific intensity, duration, and frequency to produce adaptive changes. This approach must be maintained over time to support their performance ability. Rest and recovery are also crucial elements of any canine conditioning program.

Nutrition plays a vital role in supporting and enhancing performance and recovery in active dogs. Dogs require fuel, which can come from stored energy in the form of glycogen and dietary energy. However, stored glycogen only makes up about 1-2% of an adult dog's body weight and cannot sustain prolonged energetic demands. Instead, dogs use dietary fat as their primary energy source. While protein can be used as an energy source, it may impact protein availability for repair, regeneration, and growth of body tissues after exercise. Carbohydrates are essential to support sprinting and short-duration activity, as well as the replenishment of muscle glycogen during recovery. By altering what, when, and how we feed our dogs, we can make targeted nutritional changes in response to our dog's activity type and level.

Our dogs are involved in a wide range of work and sporting activities. Nutrition can help support performance and recovery.

Canine Activities

Many dogs fill full-time working or athletic roles, while others are active pets with intermittent participation. Various canine activities differ in their intensity and duration, ranging from short but intense events like agility or greyhound racing to long, low to moderate intensity activities like sled dog racing or herding and gun dog work. Active dogs have higher metabolic demands, requiring increased dietary energy, water, protein, and key micronutrients. By assessing the frequency, intensity, and duration of our dogs' activities, we can determine their individual nutritional and energy requirements. This information can help us tailor their nutrition to enhance their performance output, in conjunction with appropriate training, physical conditioning, and other management strategies. While nutrition and training can improve performance, genetic limitations cannot be overcome with nutritional interventions. Nonetheless, we can customize nutrition to meet the demands of activity and performance through food type, amount, and delivery to meet each dog's unique needs.

The Biology of the Canine Athlete

Understanding the fundamental biology of our athletic dogs is crucial to ensure that we are requesting appropriate performance from them, and that we can provide adequate training, conditioning, and nutrition. While an extensive review of canine exercise physiology is not the focus of this book, it is important to be aware of some key aspects. Canine muscles consist of various fiber types, which are classified based on their metabolic function and ability to contract. Slow-twitch fibers are primarily used for low-to-moderate intensity exercise, while fast-twitch fibers are used for high-intensity activity. Greyhounds and sighthounds have more fast-twitch muscle fibers than dogs bred for endurance work, such as fox hounds. Intermediate athletes have a more balanced muscle-fiber composition. Conditioning work can help support your dog’s biology to adapt to different forms of activity, but ultimately, muscle composition is primarily determined by genetics, which will determine the type of activity that an individual dog is best suited for.

Exercise and Activity Type

There are three types of exercise that dogs typically engage in, which are classified based on the intensity and duration of the activity. High-intensity exercise is characterized by an increased heart and respiration rate. During short-duration exercise, carbohydrates are predominantly used as a fuel source, but as the duration increases, the metabolism will switch to fat (and occasionally protein), usually beyond thirty minutes. Essentially, short, fast activities benefit from dietary carbohydrate and longer, moderate-intensity activities benefit from fat.

Sprinting is high intensity and short duration, while intermediate exercise includes activities that last for several minutes to a few hours and might be low to moderate intensity. Endurance activities, on the other hand, last several hours and are typically low to moderate intensity. In developing a nutritional strategy, it is important to consider each individual dog's exercise output and frequency of that exercise, as dogs that are frequently involved in their activity (daily or several times weekly) have increased nutritional requirements compared to those taking part more irregularly or seasonally.

Different breeds and types of dog have different muscle composition that influences what activities they might be best suited for. Spaniels and fox hounds are intermediate canine athletes.

Caregivers need to be critical in their estimation of activity frequency, and distance covered during activity should also be considered. Short, intense activities have minimal impact on energy requirements, whereas long-distance activity can increase daily energy needs by more than 100%. For example, most agility dogs training or competing once or twice a week will have a very modest increase in their dietary energy requirements, in contrast to a working gundog, hunting and retrieving several times a week or a sled dog covering large distances.

Fuelling for Function – Practical Nutrition for Active Dogs

Providing proper nutrition to support and enhance the performance and recovery of active dogs is crucial. Unlike most pet dogs, working dogs and those involved in energetic activities have higher nutritional needs. Additionally, working in extreme environments can further impact their requirements for water and key nutrients. To meet these needs, it is essential to ensure that the diet is highly digestible, with a digestibility of at least 80%. Adequate nutrient supply is also necessary. Water should be available at all times, except immediately before a sprinting activity, such as racing.

Nutrients for Active Dogs

The nutritional needs of active dogs are influenced by their physical and metabolic demands. It is important to ensure that the protein in their diet is of high quality, easily digestible, and increased above maintenance requirements by 5-15% to support muscle growth and repair. As their activity level increases, the amount of dietary protein should also increase. A good rule of thumb is to ensure that approximately 25% of their dietary energy comes from protein.

While dietary carbohydrates are not essential for dogs, they can be beneficial for active dogs, particularly those engaged in short-duration, high-intensity exercise. For instance, racing greyhounds can benefit from diets where 50% of the kilocalories come from soluble carbohydrates, and only about 25% from protein and fat, respectively. Although soluble carbohydrates are less important for intermediate and endurance exercise, where fat is key, they can support the replenishment of muscle glycogen when provided as a supportive snack during short exercise breaks or as a recovery aid within thirty to sixty minutes of activity cessation. This is particularly useful for dogs engaged in activities on successive days.

Examples of canine activities categorised by type of activity/performance based on intensity, frequency, and duration

Agility only increases a dog’s energy requirements by a modest amount in contrast to longer duration activities.

As physical activity increases in both intensity and duration, a higher proportion of dietary fat is utilized as a concentrated and easily accessible source of energy. Sled dogs participating in long-distance races, for example, can expend more than 10,000kcal/day and their diet may consist of up to 80% kilocalories from fat. Dietary fat plays a crucial role in enhancing energy intake by increasing the energy density and palatability of food, which is particularly important for high-performance dogs whose appetite and digestive capacity may be reduced.

The micronutrient requirements for active dogs are still being scrutinized, and there is no conclusive evidence to support excess supplementation of individual micronutrients or combinations. Excessive intake of micronutrients can be as harmful as micronutrient deficiency for active dogs. B vitamins are likely to be required in greater quantities due to increased energy expenditure and additional water turnover in the body. Vitamin C may also be lost in this manner and could play a beneficial antioxidant role for dogs undergoing heavy exercise. High-fat diets, particularly those rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), are known to increase oxidative risk. Therefore, the use of antioxidant vitamin supplementation (C and E) may be advantageous for active dogs. A balanced and varied diet for active dogs is likely to provide sufficient levels of key micronutrients, and any additional supplementation should be based on an individual and evidence-based approach.

Feeding Strategies for Active Dogs

The frequency of feeding and meal size for active dogs is a crucial factor that depends on their workload and timing. It is essential to limit the amount of digesta in the digestive tract to support performance output and ensure effective digestion and absorption of food. For sprint or intermediate canine athletes, it is recommended to reduce the volume consumed by approximately 25% in the 24 hours preceding activity. This approach can be highly beneficial. Additionally, minimizing large volumes of food intake within the eight hours before prolonged or intense activity is useful in reducing digestive disturbances, the additional weight of digestive bulk, and faecal output during activity. However, every individual situation requires assessment based on the volume to be fed, individual preferences, and the ability to provide the required nutrition.

When to feed is important for active dogs to minimise digestive disturbance and support performance. Sometimes meals are useful during a busy working day however, as for these working gundogs during their lunchtime break.

Water and the Active Dog

Water is an essential component for the proper functioning, structure, and temperature regulation of the body, particularly for active dogs. Dehydration poses a significant risk to many working and sporting dogs in extreme conditions, and their endurance capacity is determined by their hydration status. Even mild dehydration can significantly affect the performance of these dogs. The water turnover in active dogs is dependent on various factors such as the intensity, frequency, and duration of activity, as well as ambient temperatures. While the water requirement of dogs exercising in colder temperatures may be less than that of less active dogs in warmer climates, water should still be freely available. Studies have demonstrated that a "nutrient-enhanced" water source can promote increased water intake and support thermoregulation and recovery after exercise. The hydration status of scenting dogs is also crucial for their olfactory capability, and dehydration can significantly affect their scenting ability.

Many dog handlers often use meat juices, gravy, or similar substances to "bait" water and encourage high-performance output. It is essential to ensure that water is always freely available, but if that is not possible, it should be offered during breaks and rest periods. Some dogs may be hesitant to drink water from different sources. In such cases, carrying bottles of their usual water can be a sensible precaution to avoid voluntary reduced water intake.

Water should be freely available at all times for active dogs. Here water is even available during transit and while waiting to work.

Water and Temperature Regulation

Water is an effective tool for regulating the body temperature of dogs. While many animals sweat to cool down, dogs have a limited capacity to do so compared to other species. Instead, dogs rely heavily on panting to regulate their body temperature, which can cause them to lose significant amounts of water. Therefore, it is crucial to provide fresh, clean drinking water to dogs exposed to warm environments or those that have been exercising heavily. Dehydration can severely limit a dog's ability to cool down and can even be fatal in extreme cases. However, it is essential to avoid offering large amounts of water in a single serving to a dog that is panting rapidly, as this can lead to water intoxication. Instead, regular water intake through diet and drinking can help manage this issue. After hard exercise, it is advisable to allow breathing rates to steady before offering water. Many dogs will choose to immerse themselves in water after activity as a cooling mechanism, which can also help them drink while cooling down. However, there is a real risk of water intoxication, especially for dogs that repeatedly immerse themselves in water and retrieve items from it. Therefore, it is crucial to manage this carefully.

Should I Use Electrolytes?

The utilization of electrolytes to enhance performance and facilitate recovery in various species is a widespread practice. However, dogs that engage in physical activity tend to lose more water than electrolytes due to their limited capacity to sweat. Consequently, replenishing water is likely to be of greater significance for highly active dogs compared to the provision of electrolytes. Nonetheless, there exists some indication that electrolyte solutions are secure, well-received, and have the potential to enhance heat-tolerance in exercising dogs.

Dogs use panting as a major cooling mechanism and their ability to sweat for cooling is extremely limited.

(IMG) Dogs will often enjoy cooling themselves down by immersing in water.

Are ‘Snacks’ and ‘Energy Supplements’ Needed?

The use of snacks and energy supplements for active dogs has been a topic of debate among professionals. While some argue that a nutritionally adequate diet is sufficient for active dogs, others believe that supplements can enhance their performance and aid in recovery. A variety of commercial and homemade options are available to provide additional nutrition before, during, or after activity. It is important to note that if an active dog is experiencing a lack of energy or losing body condition, a vet check should be conducted to rule out any health concerns. Moreover, their diet should be audited to ensure that it is supplying enough energy to support their level of activity.

Energy snacks and supplements can be beneficial for dogs that require concentrated and targeted nutrition. They can provide extra kilocalories, protein, specific amino acids, antioxidants, and micronutrients such as taurine and carnitine that support performance and recovery. Many supplements are provided as fluids, which can also help with hydration.

Some supplements and snacks formulated for active dogs provide a balanced supply of protein and carbohydrate, which can help support tissue repair and recovery after activity. Carbohydrate, specifically soluble forms, can help replenish muscle stores of glycogen depleted after activity, which is especially useful for dogs undertaking strenuous activity on consecutive days. Such snacks are best fed within twenty minutes of exercise finishing or within an hour, as this is when the cells and metabolism are primed to use nutrients in this way. Post-activity snacks can also be used as a reward for 'work well done,' provided that they are nutritionally valuable to support recovery.

While dietary supplements and functional foods might have a role in the nutrition of active dogs, the evidence of their value, and even level of supplementation required, is limited. Joint health is a particular concern for active and working dogs, and to date, omega-3 fatty acid supplementation has the most evidence of efficacy to support natural anti-inflammatory processes in the body.

Long-distance activity, such as canicross, bikejor or other sled dog sports, might mean that targeted use of functional snacks supports performance and recovery.

Summary

• Our dogs’ energy requirements will change based on activity level, intensity, frequency and duration.
• Highly active, and especially endurance, canine athletes benefit from diets with increased energy supply from dietary fat.
• Carbohydrate and protein are also important for active dogs but at levels suitable for activity type.
• Hydration status of active dogs is critical to support their health and performance output.
• Electrolytes, snacks and supplements might be useful for active dogs but should be used on an individual and evidence-based basis.

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Feeding for Health

It is essential to consider the impact of nutrition on our dogs' health and wellbeing. As pet owners, we often modify their diets when they undergo changes in their lives, such as illness, injury, or ageing. By making simple adjustments to their nutrition, we can significantly improve their health, performance, and behaviour. However, it is crucial to note that dietary changes may not always yield positive results, and overfeeding and excessive supplementation can worsen existing conditions or cause new issues.

To ensure our dogs' optimal health, we must understand the correlation between their diet and wellbeing. Making informed decisions about their nutrition can help them lead longer, healthier, and happier lives. It is important to note that the concept of "health span" is equally vital as lifespan. While a long life is desirable, it is not always indicative of high welfare, especially if the dog has been plagued by ill health. Therefore, it may be better to have a shorter but healthier life. Nutrition is one way to support both lifespan and health span.

The Science of Longevity

In order to support our furry companions in living long and healthy lives, it is important to consider lifestyle factors such as nutrition, exercise, and healthcare. While genetics play a role in determining lifespan, these other factors can have a significant impact on the health and longevity of our dogs. It is important to note that simply living a long life is not necessarily desirable if it is associated with poor health and reduced quality of life.

On average, dogs live between twelve and fifteen years, but with advancements in veterinary medicine, preventative healthcare, and nutrition, many dogs are living longer and healthier lives. However, there are certain factors that can affect lifespan, such as breed size and predisposition to certain conditions. Cancer is also a leading cause of death in dogs, and while age is a contributing factor, nutrition and other lifestyle factors may also play a role.

Research has shown that caloric restriction is a protective mechanism that can promote increased lifespan in a range of species, including dogs. Therefore, keeping our dogs fit and lean is an evidence-based way to maximize their lifespan. Ultimately, our goal is to ensure that our dogs live as long and healthy lives as possible, and paying attention to their lifestyle factors is key in achieving this.

Caloric Restriction and Longevity

Caloric restriction refers to the practice of limiting the number of calories consumed and maintaining a lean body weight with minimal adipose tissue. From a practical standpoint, this involves providing dogs with enough calories to support their biology and activity levels while preventing excess weight gain and reducing the risk of overweight or obesity. It is essential to support weight management and monitoring throughout a dog's life. As dogs age, it becomes increasingly important for them to maintain a higher percentage of lean body tissue than fat, as each additional kilogram of body weight increases the risk of mortality. Studies indicate that dogs can live up to two years longer on average when their body weight is maintained at a healthy level, while the likelihood of developing conditions such as osteoarthritis and certain forms of cancer is reduced. By promoting fitness and leanness in our dogs, we can potentially extend their lifespan and improve their overall health. While the quantity of food consumed is crucial, the quality of nutrition provided is also a significant factor in achieving optimal health outcomes.

Regular weighing is a good way to measure and monitor body condition to maintain a lean, healthy condition.

The key points to ensure the optimal health and longevity of your dog are maintaining a healthy and lean bodyweight, consistently weighing and measuring their food, regularly assessing their body condition, and adjusting their food intake accordingly.

Nutritionally Responsive Disorders – How Can Nutrition Support Health?

Feeding for health entails utilizing nutrition to promote good health and manage certain conditions, where diet can serve as a fundamental treatment strategy to aid dogs experiencing certain health issues. In other instances, nutrition can be utilized as a supportive therapy for diseases and disorders not necessarily related to diet. When a condition can be supported through nutrition, it is referred to as nutritionally responsive, and dietary adjustments become part of ongoing management.

However, it is essential to note that veterinary advice should always be sought first if there are any concerns about a dog's health. Nutrition alone should never be used as a substitute for veterinary investigation, a proper diagnosis, or seeking veterinary treatment. Occasionally, after a specific diagnosis, nutrition can be reviewed and modified. For specific clinical conditions, this should be done in collaboration with the veterinary surgeon or by referral to a veterinary nutritionist. It is important to note that in the UK, it is illegal for anyone who is not a registered veterinary surgeon to diagnose, treat or perform surgery on an animal. This is a crucial consideration when seeking nutritional advice, particularly to support the management of health conditions.

Overweight and Obesity

Canine obesity is a growing concern among pet owners and veterinary professionals alike. In fact, it is now recognized as the most common nutritionally related condition in companion animals. According to some veterinarians, at least 50 percent of their canine patients are overweight or obese. This condition occurs when dogs consume more calories than they burn off, resulting in an energy excess. Once a dog reaches 5 percent above their ideal body weight, they are considered overweight. If they reach 15-20 percent above ideal, they are classified as obese. Unfortunately, excess body weight can lead to serious health risks and is a form of malnutrition. While there are many factors that contribute to a dog's predisposition towards obesity, weight management is a crucial aspect of their overall health that can be effectively managed through dietary and lifestyle adjustments.

Nutritional Management of Overweight and Obesity

Managing dogs that are overweight or obese requires a professional approach that involves reducing energy consumption and increasing physical activity. While it is common advice to feed less of the existing diet, this approach can lead to nutritional inadequacy for micronutrients if other nutrient requirements are not met. Therefore, feeding guidelines are crucial in ensuring that dogs receive the proper nutrition they need. To achieve weight loss, it may be necessary to significantly restrict the number of kilocalories consumed, which can result in dogs feeling unsatisfied and resorting to begging and scavenging. As such, dietary changes may be necessary to support weight loss and management, such as reformulating home-prepared diets or selecting a commercially available diet designed for weight management.

Bodyweight, Body Condition Scoring and Food Intake

The interrelationship between bodyweight, body condition, and food intake is critical in maintaining a dog's overall health. The accumulation of fat tissue resulting from overweight and obesity leads to changes in body condition and an increase in bodyweight. To ensure that our dogs maintain an ideal bodyweight, we can employ body condition scoring (BCS) to monitor their body condition and adjust their diet and exercise levels accordingly.

A Healthy Bodyweight

The relationship between bodyweight, body condition, and food intake in dogs is important to understand. Overweight and obesity can lead to an increase in bodyweight and changes to body condition, such as an increase in fat tissue. To manage our dogs' weight effectively, it is recommended that we measure their bodyweight and check their body condition through body condition scoring (BCS). This information can help us adjust their diet and exercise levels to maintain an ideal bodyweight.

Regularly weighing our dogs and keeping records is a simple way to monitor their health. Weekly or fortnightly weigh-ins can help us quickly identify any changes in weight and make necessary adjustments to their diet or exercise routine. It is important to note that weight changes can occur subtly, so exact measuring of bodyweight is crucial. If significant weight gain or loss occurs in a short period, it is advisable to seek veterinary advice.

Weighing our dogs is relatively straightforward, and owners can use bathroom scales or visit pet shops or veterinary surgeries that have pet weigh-scales available. Keeping a diary or spreadsheet to record bodyweight changes is an excellent way to track progress and can be especially useful for fitness programs, weight-management strategies, pregnant bitches, or any situation where knowing what is happening over time is essential.

For some breeds, average bodyweights are available, but for mixed breeds, alternative methods such as BCS can be useful in determining an ideal bodyweight. Visiting the vet for a weigh-in can be a positive experience for our dogs and help build positive associations with the vet's office.

Body Condition Scoring (BCS)

The Body Condition Score (BCS) is a reliable and uncomplicated method to assess your dog's physical health. It involves using visual charts, which are often produced by dog food manufacturers, and physically feeling your dog's condition. A dog in good health should have a lean physique, with their last ribs just visible when moving and their ribs easily felt without applying excessive pressure. If you have to press through a layer of fat before feeling their ribs or cannot see their ribs at all, your dog may be carrying excess weight. Additionally, a healthy dog should have a clear 'abdominal tuck' when viewed from the side, with their abdomen curving upwards. If their lower profile forms a straight line from front to back, they may have excess fat accumulation in their abdomen. From above, a dog with an 'ideal' BCS should have an 'hourglass' shape, with their body curving inward after their rib cage. If there is an outward bulge or no inward curve, your dog may be carrying excess weight. If you are unsure how to perform a BCS, it is advisable to seek guidance from your vet, vet nurse, or nutritionist. Research has shown that understanding what a healthy BCS looks and feels like can make achieving it much simpler. Furthermore, there are specific BCS charts available for individual breeds, such as the pug, which has a dedicated BCS chart that considers their characteristic shape.

In assessing your dog’s body condition, look at their side profile and you should see a clear abdominal ‘tuck’. This is a young, healthy, very active, entire dog with a lean, athletic body condition.

Some dog breeds have distinct body shapes and conformations, making body condition scoring problematic. Pugs now have a devoted BCS chart to help caregivers monitor their body condition more easily.

Food Intake

Managing your dog's food intake is a crucial component of any weight-management program. Overfeeding can lead to weight gain, so reducing the amount of food given at each meal or switching to a diet specifically designed for weight management can be effective for dogs needing to lose weight. It's important to note that weight-loss diets are energy-dilute, meaning that the amount of food will be the same or more than a standard adult dog diet but with fewer kilocalories. This can be advantageous for dogs on significant calorie restriction or those who are not satisfied with the amount of food given.

Feeding several small meals throughout the day can help dogs feel full and reduce the likelihood of behavioral issues that arise from hunger or anticipation of being fed. Alternative feeding methods, such as scatter-feeding or encouraging your dog to be more active when eating, can also increase their activity level and slow down their eating. While scatter-feeding is ideal for dry food, soaking your dog's food can increase their eating activity, slow down their eating, and provide hydration and digestive benefits.

Food-activity toys are available to provide environmental enrichment, and they can be filled with food or frozen (if feeding wet food) and offered to your dog as a treat or to prolong mealtimes. Special "slow-feeding" bowls or mats can also make eating more challenging, extending mealtimes and adding activity to eating. These bowls are particularly helpful for dogs that tend to gulp their food and experience reflux or wind as a result. Slowing down the rate of eating can also improve overall digestion.

Weighing out your dog's food for every meal is critical to support weight management. Evidence shows that scoops or cups can be wildly inaccurate and can significantly over- or under-supply food. If multiple people prepare a dog's meals, there will also be differences in how they measure food using scoops. A set of basic kitchen scales is a key addition to any doggy household, and it only takes a few seconds more in each meal preparation to weigh out the food. Weighing your dog's food makes economic and health sense, especially for those on a tight budget.

Weighing your dog’s food is good practice to ensure daily consistency. Scoops and cups are notoriously inaccurate.

Weight-Loss Programmes

Many dogs benefit from managed and supported weight-loss programmes, often with the assistance of their veterinary surgeon or veterinary nurse. These programmes provide advice and guidance on diet, exercise, and other lifestyle factors that contribute to overweight and obesity. It is crucial to ensure that caregivers comply with the programme and achieve the desired results. Unfortunately, many weight-loss programmes fail, or dogs regain lost weight, due to poor compliance or reverting back to earlier habits, even after successful weight loss. Ensuring that the entire household supports the weight-loss programme is essential. It is common for some household members to undermine weight-management programmes through poor compliance.

For a weight-loss programme to succeed, it must be sustainable and fit with the caregiver and dog's lifestyle. Food choices, intensity, duration, and frequency of exercise, and ongoing monitoring of bodyweight and BCS all need to be considered and managed after the target bodyweight is reached. Encouraging the dog and caregiver to have a shared exercise programme is mutually beneficial and enhances success rates. Calculating the dog's daily ME needs for weight loss and ensuring that their diet supplies this and no excess is helpful. Limiting treat use or converting to 'healthier' treats, such as carrot and cucumber, is useful. It is recommended to use some of the dog's daily food as treats and rewards and avoid table scraps to limit the accidental inclusion of extra calories.

Exercise is essential for weight management as it promotes energy expenditure and maintains lean muscle mass. However, the amount and form of exercise should be increased slowly to minimize the risk of injury and ensure sustainability.

Monitoring the rate of weight loss is critical. Weight loss should be enough to see changes and health benefits quickly, but not so fast that other issues arise, including excess hunger or loss of lean body mass rather than adipose tissue. Adipose tissue has a lower metabolic rate than other body tissues and might be 'spared' in cases of extreme and rapid weight loss. A target bodyweight loss of between 1 and 2.5 per cent of the dog's starting bodyweight per week is recommended.

Characteristics of Diets for Weight Management

Diets designed for weight management are formulated to be energy-dilute, containing fewer kilocalories per 100g than equivalent diets for adult maintenance or working/sporting dogs. Typically ranging from 300 to 340kcal/100g, these diets achieve their energy-dilute status by altering the proportions of macronutrients that supply energy. This involves reducing the amount of fat and increasing the amount of carbohydrate and protein. By reducing the amount of fat in a given amount of food, the energy density of the diet is reduced because per gram, fat supplies more than twice the calories of either protein or carbohydrate. As a result, the calorie distribution of diets for weight management is balanced more towards a higher percentage of energy coming from carbohydrate and protein than from fat. Diets formulated for weight management will typically have a maximum of 12% fat on a dry matter basis, although some may be much lower, especially if they are designed to support the management of other concomitant health conditions. It is important to note that if fat inclusion is too low, a diet can become unpalatable. Furthermore, dietary fat is also essential to support the provision of the fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids.

Healthy treats, such as cucumber, make great options for weight management.

Macronutrients for Weight Management

Diets aimed at weight management may contain increased levels of indigestible fibre, but the evidence supporting its effectiveness in promoting weight loss is limited. In fact, such diets may lead to increased faecal bulk and defecation rates. A more preferable approach to weight loss and management involves providing dietary energy in the form of digestible protein and complex carbohydrates, such as starch. This approach avoids the negative consequences associated with a high-fibre diet. The source of starch in a weight-loss diet is a critical consideration as it can significantly impact blood-sugar levels and the body's response to insulin, the hormone responsible for managing blood-sugar levels and fat deposition. Starch derived from barley and other grains, such as sorghum, is known to provoke a less significant spike in blood-sugar and insulin levels compared to starch in diets containing rice or wheat.

Supplements for Weight Management

Supplemental nutrients are sometimes recommended to aid in weight management. Antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, are known to be beneficial in cases where there is an increased utilization of body fat stores to prevent cell damage caused by free radicals. L-carnitine, a non-essential amino acid found in high levels in meat, aids in the transport of fats across cell membranes to be oxidized as a source of energy. Many weight management diets include L-carnitine to support the movement of fats from the bloodstream into cells for energy. L-carnitine can also protect the liver from accumulating fat during weight loss, and supplementation may assist in weight loss and appetite control in dogs.

What About the Underweight Dog?

Weight management can be a concern for certain dogs, particularly those that are young, highly active, or reproductively intact. Additionally, dogs that have experienced injury, illness, or have recently weaned large litters may require additional support in achieving a healthy weight. Caregivers of underweight dogs may experience anxiety about their pet's physical appearance and overall health, and it is important to monitor bodyweight and body condition score (BCS) closely. After ruling out underlying medical conditions, such as internal parasite infestations or digestive issues, it may be necessary to adjust the dog's diet to meet their high daily calorie requirements. In multi-dog households, it is also important to ensure that each dog is able to consume their food without being bullied or having their meals taken by other dogs. Finally, it is worth considering whether environmental stressors may be contributing to a dog's inability to maintain a healthy weight.

Feeding for Weight Gain

A recommended method for promoting weight gain and improving body condition is to increase the amount of food given. There are several ways to do this, including increasing the amount fed per meal. However, this approach can often exceed the dog's digestive ability, leading to digestive overflow and excess production of fecal matter without weight gain. A more effective approach is to increase the number of meals per day and split the daily ration over multiple small meals. This approach does not put extra strain on the dog's digestive system and can improve the digestion, absorption, and utilization of food.

For dogs with limited appetites, feeding an energy-dense diet with smaller volumes may be necessary. It is important to ensure that the diet is highly digestible and palatable to promote intake. Diets high in fat are typically energy-dense, digestible, and highly palatable, which can be particularly important for dogs recovering from injury or illness.

Allergies and Intolerances

It is frequently reported by caregivers that their dogs are allergic to certain substances, such as allergens and food ingredients. The prevalence of allergies has been observed to have increased in many species and can lead to significant health concerns. Allergies in dogs typically manifest as skin irritation, itching, scratching, digestive upsets, and other localized reactions to allergens. When food reactions occur, they are typically the result of an adverse reaction rather than an allergy. Severe allergic reactions related to dog food have not been extensively documented in the scientific literature.

Allergy, Intolerance, Adverse Reaction – What is The Difference?

It is common for pet owners to refer to their dogs as being "allergic" when they exhibit signs of irritation or discomfort after being exposed to certain substances. However, it is important to note that not all forms of irritation are caused by allergies and may instead be the result of an intolerance. Allergies occur when the immune system reacts to a specific substance, while intolerances and adverse reactions happen without the involvement of the immune system. Severe allergies can be life-threatening, while intolerances are typically milder and may vary in their frequency and severity.

When pet owners describe their dog as having dietary allergies, they are often referring to intolerances or adverse reactions to certain foods or ingredients. Contrary to popular belief, allergies to food ingredients are relatively uncommon and are usually associated with whole proteins like beef, soy, and dairy rather than grains. It is worth noting that many allergies are caused by environmental factors rather than dietary ingredients.

If your dog is experiencing symptoms like scratching, itching, redness of skin, hair loss, chewing of paws, or digestive issues, it is important to seek a veterinary diagnosis. While tests are available that claim to identify the substances to which your dog is allergic, they are not always reliable. Therefore, it is best to work closely with your vet to identify the root cause of your dog's reaction, which may require careful exclusion or monitoring of all substances to which your dog is exposed.

Adverse Reactions to Food

When canines experience an adverse reaction to a particular food, it is typically manifested as itching and/or digestive disturbances. In some instances, the cause of such reactions may be due to food contamination, which affects all dogs that consume it. However, if only select animals exhibit signs of distress, it may be indicative of sensitivity to specific ingredients, metabolic products of digestion, or the food itself. Most adverse reactions are attributed to complete proteins in food. In such cases, introducing novel dietary proteins can prove beneficial, as it is a protein that the dog has not encountered before. Examples of such proteins include venison, rabbit, kangaroo, horse, insect, and others. Alternatively, one may consider hydrolysed diets, where the protein in the diet has already been broken down, reducing the likelihood of an adverse reaction.

Nutritional Support for Allergies, Intolerances and Adverse Reactions

When a dog exhibits an adverse reaction to a particular substance, it is recommended to minimize future exposure to it. However, if this proves to be difficult or problematic, veterinary treatments can be utilized. Additionally, changes to the dog's nutrition may also be beneficial. In cases where the issue is related to food, a food-elimination trial can be conducted. This involves removing the suspected ingredient(s) from the dog's diet for a minimum of four to six weeks while closely monitoring their response. This approach can often resolve the issue, and the ingredient can be avoided in the future. In some cases, the suspected ingredient can be reintroduced at a low level to assess the dog's response. For allergies, it is typically safest to avoid the suspected allergen entirely.

If the adverse reaction is not related to diet, nutritional support in the form of dietary omega-3 fatty acids can be helpful in supporting the body's responses. Additionally, the provision of antioxidants in the diet can have benefits in supporting the body's inflammatory responses. For example, supplementing with vitamins C and E can provide antioxidant support, and minerals such as selenium are also vital components of antioxidant defenses. While added vitamin A may be beneficial, it has a limited safe range of supplementation, so caution should be exercised when adding this or other supplements to an otherwise balanced diet.

Digestive Disturbances

Digestive problems are a common issue among dogs and can manifest in various forms. Some causes of digestive disturbances include allergies and intolerances, which can be managed through dietary adjustments. In other cases, genetics may predispose certain dogs to digestive upset. Factors such as lifestyle, hormonal changes, activity levels, and digestive illness can lead to acute or chronic digestive disturbances. It is imperative to seek veterinary advice if a dog displays lethargy, prolonged vomiting, or diarrhea, as attempting to address these issues through diet changes without proper diagnosis can be hazardous. While most digestive disturbances are temporary and resolve quickly, it is crucial to be cautious as dehydration is a genuine concern, particularly in young or older dogs or those with pre-existing conditions.

Pancreatitis

Pancreatitis is a painful condition characterized by inflammation of the pancreas. The onset of this condition can be sudden and acute, often triggered by dietary indiscretions such as consuming high-fat foods like butter. Certain breeds, like cocker spaniels, may have a predisposition to developing chronic pancreatitis, which may not necessarily be caused by diet. In order to manage pancreatitis, it is advisable to maintain a consistent diet and avoid potential triggers like high-fat foods and treats. Additionally, supportive veterinary management may be necessary, and the level of carbohydrates in the diet may need to be lowered. It is recommended to seek nutritional guidance from your veterinarian to ensure optimal management of pancreatitis.

Anal Gland Health

Many dogs may experience issues with their anal gland health, resulting in impaction and infection due to the glands not emptying naturally. While some cases may require manual evacuation, dietary changes can also aid in this matter. Increasing the amount of insoluble/indigestible fibre in a dog's diet can help to bulk out faeces, promoting normal emptying of the anal glands. A common management technique involves adding bran to a dog's meals, although it's important to note that bran and other forms of dietary fibre may negatively impact nutritional health and mineral balance. Care must be taken when using bran for extended periods or for dogs with certain health conditions. Additionally, probiotics and prebiotics may support digestive health and promote normal anal gland function.

Bran is sometimes an easy option to add to your dog’s food to bulk out stools and support anal gland emptying.

Exercise-Induced Digestive Upset

Canine companions with high levels of activity are prone to experiencing digestive issues and loose stools during exercise. This can be attributed to the movement of the body and the swift transportation of undigested food. However, this can be easily managed by regulating the timing of feeding, ideally several hours before intense physical activity, and by reducing the quantity of food consumed during meal times preceding active periods. These practices effectively minimize the volume of material passing through the digestive tract.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) and Other Conditions

There are several diagnosed digestive conditions that can benefit from dietary support. This typically involves analyzing the diet's composition, adjusting specific nutrient levels, and modifying meal timing and portion sizes. It is advisable to seek veterinary assistance when managing these conditions, as each dog's needs are unique and personalized support is necessary, making generalizations difficult.

Nutrition for a Healthy Skin and Coat

The skin is the largest organ of the body and serves as a vital protective barrier against the external environment. It is essential for a dog to maintain good health by having a clean, shiny coat that is not excessively greasy, dirty or scurfy. It is imperative to ensure that the dog feels pleasant to touch, without any sores, discharge, evidence of external parasites/infection or unpleasant odour. It is recommended to be aware of what is considered ‘normal’ for your dog’s breed/type, including the extent and frequency of moulting or shedding of the coat. Moulting is often linked to the seasons, with many dogs growing thicker coats in the winter months. However, dogs living in centrally heated homes may show less seasonal fluctuation in moulting and shed their coat consistently. Hormonal changes also affect coat condition, especially in entire bitches that will typically moult and change their coat around their seasons. Changes to nutrition can also affect skin and coat quality. It is important to note that when nutrition is changed, there may be transient changes in coat condition, and shedding may temporarily increase.

Skin and Coat Concerns

The condition and appearance of a dog's skin and coat is a significant indicator of their overall health and nutritional status. Early signs of nutrient deficiency can manifest as changes in skin and coat condition or pigmentation. A thorough visual and physical evaluation of a dog's skin and coat is necessary to assess their nutritional health. It is important to note that a minimum of four weeks is required to observe any significant improvement in skin and coat condition or nail growth when implementing supportive management. This is due to the growth cycle of the skin, coat, and nail cells and tissues. It is important to approach testimonials claiming immediate results following a nutritional change or supplement introduction with caution.

Nutritional Support for Skin and Coat Condition

Ensuring a healthy skin and coat for your canine companion requires attention to key nutritional factors. Adequate intake of high-quality, easily digestible protein is essential, as the skin, coat, and nails are all protein-rich. Additionally, dietary fat, particularly omega-3 fatty acids, plays a crucial role in maintaining skin and coat condition. Dogs on higher-fat diets typically exhibit superior coat appearance and texture compared to those on lower-fat diets. Vitamin E is also critical for skin health, and supplementation may be beneficial in certain cases. Biotin is another important nutrient that supports skin, coat, and nail growth and condition. However, it is recommended to seek professional guidance when supplementing an otherwise balanced diet to ensure proper nutrient provision and prevent potential excess.

Other Nutritionally Responsive Conditions

As we continue to deepen our understanding of our dogs' health and how to manage specific conditions, it is becoming increasingly apparent that diet and nutrition can play a vital role in supporting their care. While it is not typically possible to rely solely on nutrition to treat or cure most conditions (with a few rare exceptions), it can be a valuable component of overall healthcare and management.

If your dog has received a diagnosis for a specific condition, such as diabetes, kidney disease, or cancer, it is essential to consult with your veterinarian before making any changes to their diet. Given the highly individual nature of these cases, it is beyond the scope of this book to provide specific nutritional advice. However, a referral to a clinical veterinary nutritionist may be beneficial for conditions directly linked to food or the digestive system. It is important to remember that while non-veterinary nutritionists can be knowledgeable, they are not qualified to diagnose or treat conditions. Instead, their guidance should be considered supplementary to veterinary care.

A healthy skin and coat is supported by good nutrition.

Foods that are Potentially Dangerous to Our Dogs

While many dogs can eat all sorts of food with few ill-effects, there are foods and ingredients that are potentially very dangerous for our dogs. Many of these are common human foods and our dogs can eat them by accident or by scavenging. If you think your dog has eaten something potentially dangerous, always seek veterinary advice and don’t be tempted to ‘wait and see’ – this is critical for food such as grapes, raisins and chocolate. All have the potential to cause serious harm to our dogs, but internal damage can occur before outward signs appear. It is always better to be safe than sorry. Other common foods and ingredients to be aware of as potentially dangerous include some artificial sweeteners, such as xylitol (often found in chewing gum and some peanut butter), caffeine, garlic and onions. Many garden plants, including bulbs, are toxic for our dogs, so care should always be taken to limit access and exposure to these.

Diet and Dog Behaviour – Are They Linked?

The relationship between nutrition and behaviour in dogs is a complex one that requires careful consideration. While high protein levels in dog food have been associated with behavioural problems, it is not as simple as a single nutrient or its levels. Changing diets to lower protein levels, home-prepared, raw, eliminating wheat/other grains, and other adjustments have been reported to improve behaviour. However, it is important to note that other variables, such as the quality of the diet and the caregiver-dog relationship, may also contribute to these changes.

It is clear that behaviour and nutrition are linked, but likely at a more complex level than commonly believed. Nutrients such as omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to support learning and cognition, and there is growing evidence of the connection between gut health, brain health, and behaviour. Supporting a dog's digestive microbiome and ensuring their diet supplies essential nutrients are ways in which we can support their behaviour.

In conclusion, the link between nutrition and behaviour is highly individual and requires careful exploration to ensure that the overall nutrition, training, and management of the dog are optimized to promote acceptable behaviour.

Diet Choice for Specific Situations

When considering the nutritional needs of a dog, it is important to recognize that each animal is unique and requires an individualized approach. While specific dietary requirements may be necessary for managing certain health conditions, it is also crucial to address any additional needs that may be present. The primary goal is to ensure that the diet provides adequate nutrients and is both acceptable and digestible for the dog. In some cases, a food-elimination trial may be necessary to identify the cause of allergies, intolerances, digestive issues, or behavioral concerns. This process requires careful management to prevent accidental exposure to other foods that could disrupt the trial. For example, if caregivers suspect that grains in their dog's food are causing problems, a food-elimination trial may be initiated, but it is essential to ensure that the dog is not consuming grains in other treats or snacks. Accurate dietary records, such as food diaries, are a valuable tool for monitoring the effects of dietary changes and are critical for promoting optimal health in dogs.

Summary

• Nutrition is one way that we can support the lifespan and health span of our dogs.
• Nutrition is a controllable variable that can be amended to help the management of a number of health conditions.
• Weight management, in particular, is essential for the overall health and wellbeing of our dogs.
• Food-elimination trials are a useful way of identifying dietary ingredients that might be linked with digestive or other health problems.
• Diet choice or modification (including supplementation) to support specific health conditions should be done with veterinary advice and on an individual basis.

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Feeding for Life Stage

Dogs undergo a variety of changes throughout their lifespan, from puppyhood to senior status, and it is vital to tailor their nutrition and feeding habits accordingly to support their overall health. Age and life stage, as well as breed, size, and activity level, all play a role in determining a dog's nutritional requirements. Many commercial diets offer specific ranges formulated for various life stages, including puppy, junior, adult, and senior, which some may view as a marketing tactic. However, scientific research has increasingly shown that feeding for specific life stages is crucial, regardless of the chosen diet. It is important to understand the key nutritional needs of dogs from before birth to their senior years, and this knowledge will be practically applied.

Nutrition for Reproduction

The nutrition of dogs plays a crucial role in their overall health, starting from their prenatal stage. The diet of breeding dogs and bitches should be thoughtfully planned, taking into account the quality and quantity of nutrients provided. It is imperative to ensure that the potential mating partners are suitable matches not only in terms of their general health, but also their genetic and breed/type compatibility.

Nutrition Before Breeding

Maintaining good overall health and a fit, lean body condition is crucial for animals intended for breeding. A fundamental principle to follow is 'fit not fat' for any breeding dog. Obesity in dogs can lead to significant reproductive problems such as difficulty mating, reduced litter size, and potentially, dystocia during birth. Furthermore, obesity can have long-term health effects on offspring, as studies across various species indicate that the offspring of overweight parents may experience long-term impacts on gene expression and overall wellbeing. However, it is equally important to ensure that animals are not underweight since underweight bitches may experience delayed reproductive cycles or have difficulties conceiving, carrying a litter to full-term, or whelping.

Another area of growing interest is the impact of environmental chemicals on fertility across different species. Studies on both canines and humans have shown that a range of chemicals and toxins present in the environment (and thus, in food) can negatively affect reproduction and development. Since dogs often share the same environment and dietary components as humans, their health and reproduction serve as a critical indicator of what might be problematic for us as well.

Breeding dogs should be ‘fit not fat’ and have a good lean, body condition.

Numerous chemicals have been identified as having detrimental effects on reproductive health and development. These chemicals can be found in food ingredients naturally, as contaminants, or as a result of processing, storage, or packaging. They can also be present in the wider environment, including water. Many of these chemicals are known to be endocrine disruptors, which means they affect the normal functioning of the body's hormonal system. While these environmental chemicals induce adverse effects on sperm health, they are typically found at higher levels in the dog ovary than in the testes. The decline in the quality of human sperm and dogs' declining sperm quality suggest a common mechanism is at play.

Moreover, early development, both prenatal and postnatal, is sensitive to exposure to chemicals that may disrupt normal processes. Exposure to certain environmental chemicals can affect the number of male and female offspring produced, with a skew towards female offspring. Therefore, it is important to be aware of the diet and the wider environment for reproducing animals. A simple measure is to minimize the use of plastics for bowls and instead use stainless steel or other inert materials. It is crucial to take care when using any medications, particularly in pregnant bitches, and seek veterinary advice if unsure. It is also sensible to limit exposure to other potentially toxic or damaging chemicals, such as weedkillers or cleaning agents. This can reduce exposure to at least some potentially problematic chemicals.

Nutrition of Stud Dogs

During breeding, it is essential to pay attention to both the health and nutrition of the stud dog, as well as the female. A stud dog's fitness and ability to mate are crucial, particularly if he is in high demand. Providing an adequate supply of energy, protein, and essential micronutrients, like zinc, is crucial to support sperm health, viability, and motility. A well-fed, active, and lean stud dog that follows a nutritionally balanced diet should not require any specific dietary adjustments. However, it is crucial to be aware of the quality of the diet, as harmful environmental chemicals can have long-term effects. Additionally, ensuring that the diet provides all necessary nutrients in the correct amounts and forms is important.

What About Nutrition of the Brood Bitch?

Prior to breeding, it is recommended that a female dog be in optimal physical condition, with a healthy and lean body. This is crucial for supporting her fertility, conception, and ability to carry a pregnancy to term. As whelping and lactation are energetically taxing for the bitch, it is important to ensure that she is on a well-balanced and nutritious diet prior to breeding, as this will help her to successfully raise a healthy litter.

Nutrition Before Breeding

Prior to breeding, it is recommended to ensure that the female dog is consuming a diet that satisfies her activity requirements and is nutritionally complete. The process of reproduction can be physically demanding and may exhaust the body's reserves of certain nutrients. Preemptively providing these nutrients before and after breeding can aid in the rapid recovery of the female dog after giving birth. Folic acid is a crucial component for the proper development of embryos. Additionally, minerals such as zinc, copper, and manganese are necessary to support litter size and development. The provision of omega-3 fatty acids, specifically DHA and EPA, is also essential in supporting fertility, as well as the normal eye and brain development of puppies. Adequately formulated diets will supply these nutrients in appropriate quantities and forms.

Nutrition After Mating

During the initial five weeks of a typical canine pregnancy, there is no need for any specific changes to the bitch's diet or an increase in the amount fed. Although the developing foetuses are sensitive, especially during the first two weeks, and care should be taken to minimize exposure to anything that could impact normal development. Between weeks three to five after mating, many bitches may experience a loss of appetite, vomiting, or digestive upset. While this is usually limited and transient, it is recommended to seek veterinary advice if it is prolonged or concerning. During the last four weeks of gestation, the developing puppies place significant demands on their dam. Therefore, it is essential to increase nutrition both in amount and nutrient supply. However, careful monitoring of the bitch and estimation of litter size is necessary to ensure that she does not gain body weight from overfeeding instead of growing puppies.

A heavily pregnant bitch resting in her whelping box, ready for the arrival of puppies.

Typically, female dogs are transitioned onto a specialized diet formulated to support performance or puppy growth and development. These diets are higher in energy, protein, and fat than standard maintenance diets and often provide elevated or managed levels of other key nutrients. It is recommended that the female dog's daily intake be 50% greater than her maintenance intake, and regular bodyweight monitoring is useful. Ideally, her bodyweight should increase by 15-20% by the time of birth, depending on the size of the litter carried.

As pregnancy progresses, the developing puppies can start to impinge on the female dog's digestive capacity, necessitating more frequent, smaller meals. Immediately before giving birth, many female dogs will stop eating, which can be a sign of impending labor or early labor.

Nutrition and Feeding During and Immediately After Birth

When a litter of puppies is delivered quickly and consistently, the mother dog may not have the time or inclination to eat. If labor is prolonged or a caesarean section is performed, small meals can be offered regularly, but it is not uncommon for the mother to refuse them. After giving birth, it is recommended to offer palatable and easily digestible food. If using dry food, soaking it in warm water can increase its palatability and provide additional fluid intake. Fresh, clean drinking water should always be available. It is wise to have alternative foods on hand to entice mothers who may have lost their appetite.

During the birthing process, it is typical for mothers to consume the placenta and other membranes expelled with the puppies. While this is entirely normal, it can cause short-lived digestive upset and diarrhea. Providing food and water in the whelping area is essential in the first few days after giving birth, as many mothers do not like leaving their puppies to eat, drink, or relieve themselves.

Nutrition Post-Whelping and During Lactation

It is recommended that food be readily available for the nursing mother to feed as needed, particularly during the first two to three weeks after giving birth and up to week five while nursing puppies. It is common for the mother to clean her puppies and consume their waste, which can cause digestive upset, especially as the puppies transition to solid food. However, after this point, the mother is typically less inclined to clean her offspring. Adequate energy and water intake are crucial to support lactation demands, which peak around three to four weeks post-whelping. A diet providing at least 4,000kcal/kg is ideal to meet these nutritional demands, which can typically be found in performance- or puppy-formulated diets. In the event that puppies require additional nutritional support, such as with very large litters, commercial puppy milk can be purchased and fed through bottle-feeding. While home-prepared alternatives are possible, they may not provide sufficient energy and key nutrients unless carefully formulated.

Occasionally puppies need additional nutritional help or hand-rearing.

Nutrition for Weaning

From approximately three weeks of age, puppies begin to develop their mobility, as well as their sight and hearing. In some cases, a female dog may allow her puppies to sample her food if it is accessible to them. It is not uncommon for a mother dog to consume food and then regurgitate it for her puppies to eat, as this is a natural and normal process that has evolved over time. This behavior can be stimulated by the puppies licking at their mother's mouth. As the puppies continue to mature and approach the weaning stage, gradually reducing the amount of food provided to the mother and transitioning her back to her regular diet can help to reduce her milk production. This process can also help to transition the puppies to their new diet. In most cases, the mother dog will gradually decrease the frequency with which she makes herself available for nursing. These steps can help to ensure that the weaning process is as stress-free and relaxed as possible for all involved.

Weaning can be a messy process but is an important developmental stage for all puppies.

Do Brood Bitches Need Supplements?

It is important to exercise caution when supplementing the nutrition of pregnant dogs, particularly during the early stages of pregnancy. Overfeeding certain nutrients can have adverse effects on the development of the puppies. Vitamin A, for instance, can seriously affect the normal eye development of puppies if provided in excess during pregnancy. Therefore, supplements like cod liver oil should only be used under the guidance of a professional and with due care. It is crucial to provide minerals such as calcium and phosphorus in the right quantities for the well-being of both the bitch and her offspring. If the diet is nutritionally balanced or customized, there should be no need for specific supplementation.

Puppy Nutrition – Up to Eight Weeks Old

In the first 24 hours after whelping, it is imperative that puppies nurse and receive colostrum from their dam. Colostrum, the first milk produced, provides essential substances that promote immunity and support immune system development. The protective substances in colostrum can only be absorbed by the puppy's digestive system for about 24-48 hours after whelping, after which normal digestive processes commence and these substances would be destroyed. Puppies should be monitored and weighed daily during the first two weeks of life to ensure they are growing well.

Following the initial colostrum-rich milk, the composition of milk changes, and puppies will consume this exclusively for the first three to four weeks. After this period, they will begin to explore solid foods, and the weaning process can commence. Puppies can start by tasting their dam's food, which can be made easier by soaking a small amount of the chosen food in warm water to create a paste or mash. It is important to avoid using cows' milk to soak puppy food as the lactose content can cause digestive upset. Raw or home-prepared food can also be offered as minced, finely ground, or pureed meals. However, it is essential to note that puppy weaning can be a messy job, and puppies often end up covered in as much food as they consume.

As puppies reach eight weeks of age, the amount of food offered daily is gradually increased. By this time, most puppies are fully weaned onto solid food and rarely nurse, although some dams may continue feeding for longer. It is vital to support a managed and high-welfare weaning process, as this is behaviorally and nutritionally important for both the dam and the puppies. Additionally, exposing puppies to a variety of different foods and flavors during their early development can promote the development of a healthy and robust digestive microbiome, as well as reducing the likelihood of fussy or neophobic feeding in later life. Finally, it is crucial to ensure that puppies have been exposed to several types of food to facilitate an easy transition to their new homes and potentially new diets.

Puppies should be weighed regularly to ensure they are gaining weight consistently.

Puppyhood and Growth

At the age of eight weeks, puppies are typically ready to leave their littermates and dam. This transition to a new home, and potentially a new diet, should be approached with caution. It is recommended that any dietary changes be made gradually, as leaving their litter can be a stressful time for young puppies. Additionally, exposure to new environments, dogs, people, and other challenges, such as vaccinations, can further contribute to their stress levels. While digestive upset is common during this time, it should be self-limiting. However, puppies are also prone to infections and accidental ingestion of harmful substances while exploring, making care and awareness of their surroundings crucial.

Nutrition of the Growing Puppy

As puppies grow, it is important to provide them with a sufficient supply of energy in the form of calories, quality, and digestible protein to support the growth of tissues and organs, as well as other nutrients to support growth and development. Young puppies, up to approximately six months old, should be fed three to four meals per day. As they age, the number of meals can gradually be decreased until the desired number of adult meals is reached, while ensuring that the puppy is developing appropriately and maintaining a healthy body weight and condition.

A typical puppy diet is higher in fat and protein than an adult maintenance diet. Growth is rapid during the first six months of puppyhood, and this is when nutrition is critical to supply the energy and building blocks for growth. Small and medium breeds and types will often reach an adult body weight between six and twelve months of age, so will often benefit from a growth-supporting diet until this point, after which they can transition to a suitable adult diet. Large and giant breeds will often continue maturing until about two years of age and typically need their slower physical growth supported through more managed nutrition before moving to an adult diet.

Supporting growth is important, but it is crucial to ensure that young dogs do not carry excess body weight. This is especially important for larger breeds and types, where a moderate level of energy supply will support steady growth rates. As puppies reach physical maturity, their dietary energy requirement decreases. During periods of rapid, early growth, at least twice the number of kilocalories need to be supplied as for adult maintenance. This requirement decreases as the puppy reaches maturity and adulthood. It is important to recognize this point and to modify the diet and amount fed accordingly. This ensures that growing dogs are kept in a fit, lean condition, rather than encouraging the development of "puppy fat." Growth should be gradual, and nutrition should not be used to try and accelerate growth and development. Indeed, rapid growth can predispose the animal to skeletal problems. Fat deposition as a puppy may increase the likelihood of adult obesity.

Diets formulated for puppy and junior growth will have managed levels of calcium and phosphorus to support steady skeletal growth and development. This is especially important for large breeds. Young dogs also have limited ability to excrete mineral excess, meaning many adult diets are unsuitable.

When Should I Move My Puppy On to an Adult Diet?

The determination of when a dog can be considered an adult varies depending on their breed, type, and size. Typically, small and medium breeds reach physical maturity sooner than their larger counterparts. An adult dog is characterized by the cessation of physical growth in both size and shape. It is worth noting that a dog's musculature will continue to develop during early adulthood, with exercise and activity playing a crucial role in this process.

Young dogs need nutrition to support growth and activity before being transitioned to an adult diet.

For small and medium-sized dogs, the transition from a growth and development diet to an adult one typically begins at around eight months of age. These dogs typically reach their full height and maturity by one year of age. However, large and giant breeds have a much slower maturation process and may not reach physical maturity until nearly two years of age. Therefore, it is crucial to provide them with early nutrition that supports slow and steady growth. Large and giant-breed puppies can greatly benefit from specialized nutrition during their first two years of life, which carefully manages nutrient levels compared to standard puppy or junior diets, before transitioning to an adult diet.

The Adult Dog

Mature canines have attained physical maturity and no longer require nutritional support for growth and development. Nevertheless, their diet must sustain their activity level and provide the necessary nutrients for repair, regeneration, and overall health maintenance. In general, adult domesticated dogs lead a sedentary lifestyle, and their diet should supply energy to support their maintenance activity levels. As long as their living conditions, exercise routine, and health remain stable, most pet dogs thrive on a standard adult dog diet, regardless of their caregiver's preference.

Does Spay and Neuter Have an Effect on My Adult Dog’s Diet?

Spaying and neutering are effective methods to control unwanted reproductive behaviors and prevent the birth of puppies. Spaying involves the surgical removal of a female dog's ovaries and/or uterus to prevent pregnancy, while neutering involves the surgical removal of a male dog's testicles, although vasectomies are sometimes performed. Hormonal implants are also becoming increasingly popular as an alternative method of reproductive control.

It is worth noting that many spayed and neutered dogs may experience physical changes, including coat changes. However, it is important to recognize that spay/neuter surgery also reduces the dog's energy requirements. As a result, spayed/neutered dogs may require up to 25% fewer kilocalories per day. Failure to adjust the dog's diet accordingly may lead to weight gain. To prevent this, it is recommended to decrease the dog's calorie intake by 10% after spay/neuter and to monitor their body weight and condition closely. Adjustments to the amount fed can then be made to maintain a healthy body condition, which is a much safer approach than waiting for weight gain to occur and attempting to correct it later.

What About Dogs that Need Help with Weight Management?

As dogs mature into adulthood, they tend to exhibit decreased levels of excitement and activity compared to their puppyhood. As a result, they may expend less energy during exercise, which, when combined with other factors such as breed predisposition and spay/neuter, can contribute to weight gain. Given the association between overweight/obesity and numerous health issues and reduced lifespan, it is crucial to manage your dog's weight. Effective weight management practices include regular weighing and body condition scoring, ideally on a weekly basis, which allows for prompt detection of even minor changes and necessary dietary modifications. Additionally, adjusting their exercise routine to increase energy expenditure and altering their feeding habits (what, how, and when they eat) to reduce calorie intake can be helpful. It is essential to note that weight management is a lifelong process for your dog.

The Older Dog

Determining when a dog is considered a senior is dependent on the individual dog. Traditionally, it was recommended to switch to a senior diet once the dog reached seven years old. However, many dogs are still thriving at this age and can continue on a standard adult diet. It is not necessary to switch to a specific senior diet solely based on age. If your dog appears healthy, remains active, and has no underlying health conditions, a diet formulated for adult maintenance or activity (if your dog is highly active) should suffice. Only make the decision to change your older dog's diet if there are changes in their health, bodyweight, or body condition score.

What Diet Changes Might an Older Dog Need?

Diets formulated for older dogs require certain adjustments to suit their reduced energy needs and weight gain tendencies. Typically, these diets contain fewer calories, fat, and protein than standard adult diets. Aging dogs are more prone to developing health conditions such as osteoarthritis, which can cause reduced activity and increased bodyweight. This leads to a vicious cycle, where the dog becomes less active due to osteoarthritis, gains weight, exacerbating discomfort from their joints, and making them even less likely to be active. To ensure your older dog maintains a healthy bodyweight and receives adequate care, it is crucial to seek advice from a veterinarian if you notice signs of slowing down, stiffness, discomfort, or pain. While nutrition, such as omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, can aid some conditions, veterinary support may also be necessary. Additionally, some older dogs may have dental issues and require dietary changes, such as offering wet or soaked food.

Some senior dogs remain very active and need very few nutritional changes. Molly still runs with her person several kilometres each week aged eleven.

Does My Older Dog Need Food with Reduced Protein Levels?

In the past, it was believed that high-protein diets could lead to kidney disease in dogs, resulting in many older dog diets having lower levels of protein. However, current research has shown that high-protein diets are not a cause of kidney disease and, in fact, older dogs may require higher levels of quality, digestible protein compared to adult dogs at maintenance. This is due to the additional demands on their body as a result of the ageing process, which can lead to a decrease in their ability to effectively digest, absorb, and use dietary protein. In some cases, health changes may increase the turnover of protein in the body, necessitating an enhanced dietary supply. While older dogs' energy requirements typically decrease, reducing dietary fat levels can be beneficial. Additionally, older dogs may experience sarcopenia, a loss of lean muscle mass, which can be accelerated by diets low in digestible protein and lead to other health and wellbeing issues. Therefore, older dogs often benefit from diets with elevated levels of quality, digestible protein, compared to maintenance adult diets or traditional 'senior diets,' with at least 25 percent of their energy intake coming from protein.

Should I Give My Older Dog Supplements to Support Joint and/or Cognitive Health?

The supplement market offers a wide range of ingredients that claim to support various health conditions, including joint, movement, and cognitive health. Among these, joint-support supplements are particularly popular, but despite the extensive use of these products and the diverse range of ingredients they contain, evidence regarding their efficacy remains inconclusive. While there are many anecdotal reports of their value, it is unclear which ingredients are truly effective, what inclusion levels are optimal, and how best to administer them. In contrast, there is robust evidence supporting the use of marine-derived omega-3 fatty acids to support overall wellbeing and target specific aspects of joint and cognitive health in dogs.

If you are considering a supplement for your dog, it is important to first assess your goals and then carefully review the supplement's formulation and potential benefits. It can be helpful to keep a record of your dog's condition and health when starting a new supplement or making any dietary changes, to monitor for any positive or negative effects. If you do not observe any discernible benefits, do not hesitate to discontinue use of the supplement.

Summary

• Our dogs experience different life stages that can benefit from tailored nutrition.
• Nutrition for reproduction includes ensuring stud dogs and brood bitches are in good physical condition and have an appropriate supply of nutrients to support the demands of reproduction – this is especially important for bitches during pregnancy, whelping and lactation.
• Growing puppies and young dogs benefit from diets with increased energy levels, good-quality, digestible protein and other key nutrients, such as calcium and phosphorous, at appropriate levels.
• Adult dogs typically need a diet to support maintenance energy requirements but lifestyle factors, including spay/neuter status and bodyweight, will impact on their required nutrient provision.
• Older dogs typically need energy-reduced diets but will often benefit from maintained or enhanced levels of quality, digestible dietary protein, and provision of omega-3 supplementation.

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